[26], The invasion was referred to by Germany as the 1939 Defensive War (Verteidigungskrieg) since Hitler proclaimed that Poland had attacked Germany and that "Germans in Poland are persecuted with a bloody terror and are driven from their homes. The German-French border saw only a few minor skirmishes, and most German forces, including 85% of armoured forces, were engaged in Poland. Media in category "Slovak invasion of Poland (1939)" The following 15 files are in this category, out of 15 total. [39][40] On the night of 30/31 August, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop read a 16-point German proposal to ambassador Nevile Henderson. However, the plans were rendered obsolete nearly overnight when the over 800,000-strong Soviet Red Army entered and created the Belarusian and Ukrainian fronts after they had invaded the eastern regions of Poland, in violation of the Riga Peace Treaty, the SovietPolish Non-Aggression Pact, and other international treaties, both bilateral and multilateral. On 7 September, the defenders of Warsaw had fallen back to a 48km (30mi) line paralleling the Vistula River, where they rallied against German tank thrusts. Together, the new methods were nicknamed "Blitzkrieg" (lightning war). That is guaranteed not only by Germany, but also guaranteed by Russia. "Chapter 2. P-11c (+43 reserve), 30 P-7 (+85 reserve), 118 P-23 Kara light bombers, 36 P-37 o bombers (armed in line, additionally a few of the total number produced were used in combat), 84 reconnaissance RXIII Lublin, RWD14 Czapla (+115 reserve), Other treaties violated by the Soviet Union were the 1919. [120], According to the Polish Institute of National Remembrance, Soviet occupation between 1939 and 1941 resulted in the death of 150,000 and deportation of 320,000 of Polish citizens,[118][121] when all who were deemed dangerous to the Soviet regime were subject to Sovietization, forced resettlement, imprisonment in labor camps (the Gulags) or murdered, like the Polish officers in the Katyn massacre. All Slovak units were pulled back until the end of September 1939. Slovak Invasion of Poland (1939) - Background. Today the most common and accepted numbers are: 8,082 to 16,343 KIA, 320 to 5,029 MIA, 27,280 to 34,136 WIA. Putusk, however, was regained in the face of withering German fire. [68] The 7TP was significantly better armed than its most common opponents, the German Panzer I and II, but only 140 tanks were produced between 1935 and the outbreak of the war. Preparations for a defensive war with Germany were ongoing for many years, but most plans assumed fighting would not begin before 1942. Only some trainers and auxiliary aircraft were destroyed on the ground. 204/Churchill U. Since most of the Polish forces were engaged with the German armies, which were more to the . [124], From Lemberg to Bordeaux ('Von Lemberg bis Bordeaux'), written by Leo Leixner, a journalist and war correspondent, is a first-hand account of the battles that led to the falls of Poland, the Low Countries, and France. On March 14, 1939, the Slovak Republic was created as a client state of . Poland never will rise again in the form of the Versailles treaty. The German air power was instrumental during the battle. 7TP vol.II, Janusz Magnus#1, Militaria 317, Warszawa 2009. On 8 October, Germany formally annexed the western parts of Poland with Greiser and Forster as Reichsstatthalter, while the south-central parts were administered as the General Government led by Frank. In private, Hitler said in May that Danzig was not the important issue to him, but pursuit of Lebensraum for Germany.[35]. The 1st division occupied the village of Javorina and the town of Zakopane and continued toward Nowy Targ to protect the German 2nd Mountain Division from the left. [13] The German invasion began on 1 September 1939, one week after the signing of the MolotovRibbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union, and one day after the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union had approved the pact. 1 - 16 September 1939. On 28 April 1939, Hitler unilaterally withdrew from both the German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact of 1934 and the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935. Various sources contradict each other so the figures quoted above should only be taken as a rough indication of losses. They now border on Germany, and the latter is completely unable to expose the Eastern front. Most of the Polish Navy succeeded in evacuating to Britain as well. [58], The Polish Air Force (Lotnictwo Wojskowe) was at a severe disadvantage against the German Luftwaffe due to inferiority in numbers and the obsolescence of its fighter planes. [81] The Polish government, led by President Ignacy Mocicki, and the high command, led by Marshal Edward Rydz-migy, left Warsaw in the first days of the campaign and headed southeast, reaching Lublin on 6 September. In August 1939, Leixner joined the Wehrmacht as a war reporter, was promoted to sergeant and, in 1941, published his recollections. Up to 120,000 Polish troops escaped to neutral Romania (through the Romanian Bridgehead and Hungary), and another 20,000 to Latvia and Lithuania, with the majority eventually making their way to France or Britain. The discrepancy in German casualties can be attributed to the fact that some German statistics still listed soldiers as missing decades after the war. To compensate, the pilots relied on its maneuverability and high diving speed. Polish forces abandoned the regions of Pomerelia (the Polish Corridor), Greater Poland and Polish Upper Silesia in the first week. On 22 August, just over a week before the onset of war, Hitler delivered a speech to his military commanders at the Obersalzberg: The object of the war is physically to destroy the enemy. Moscow: Voenizdat, 1991. p. 204. [54] In 1936, a National Defence Fund was set up to collect funds necessary for strengthening the Polish Armed forces. Bombers also attacked cities, causing huge losses amongst the civilian population through terror bombing and strafing. The Soviet-German invasion and the Polish exodus (19391940) Polish forces in the West", "LC Online Catalog Item Information (Full Record)", "The Luftwaffe's Campaigns in Poland and the West 19391940: A Case Study of handling Innovation in Wartime", "The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field", Adolf Hitler's Proclamation to the German Army (1 September 1939), Adolf Hitler's Address to the Reichstag (1 September 1939), Communication from the German Government to the British Government in Response to Great Britain's Ultimatum (3 September 1939), Adolf Hitler's Proclamation to the German People (3 September 1939), The Conquest of Poland and the Beginnings of Jewish Persecution, Blitzkrieg Unleashed: The German Invasion of Poland, 1939, Detailed outline of campaign, mainly from German documents, The Campaign in Poland at WorldWar2 Database, The Campaign in Poland at Achtung! See more August Horislav kultty. The Slovak invasion of Poland occurred during Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland in September 1939. [67] A standard tank of the Polish Army during the invasion of 1939 was the 7TP light tank. Lithuania received the city of Vilnius and its environs on 28 October 1939 from the Soviet Union. The Slovak invasion of Poland occurred during Nazi Germany 's invasion of Poland in September 1939. [16][111] Just three days earlier, however, the parties had a more hostile encounter near Lww (Lviv, Lemberg), when the German 137th Gebirgsjgerregimenter (mountain infantry regiment) attacked a reconnaissance detachment of the Soviet 24th Tank Brigade; after a few casualties on both sides, the parties turned to negotiations. [76] The forward positioning of Polish forces vastly increased the difficulty of carrying out strategic maneuvres, compounded by inadequate mobility, as Polish units often lacked the ability to retreat from their defensive positions, as they were being overrun by more mobile German mechanized formations. [17] On 6 October, following the Polish defeat at the Battle of Kock, German and Soviet forces gained full control over Poland. However, contrary to German propaganda, it was not destroyed on the groundin fact it was successfully dispersed before the conflict started and not a single one of its combat planes was destroyed on the ground in the first days of the conflict. However, upon redeployment, the 18th Pomeranians came under sudden and intense machine gun fire of German armored reconnaissance vehicles. France invaded a small part of Germany in the Saar Offensive, and the Polish army was effectively defeated even before the British Expeditionary Force could be transported to Europe, with the bulk of the BEF in France by the end of September. [128], In 1939, only 10% of the Polish army was made up of cavalry units. That arrangement lasted until 20 May 1945, when the border line was returned to its 1920 position. It includes a rare eyewitness description of the Battle of Wgierska Grka. From there, it moved on 9 September to Kremenez and, on 13 September to Zaleshiki, on the Romanian border. The Slovak invasion of Poland occurred during Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland in September 1939. Andreas Toppe, Militr und Kriegsvlkerrecht: Rechtsnorm, Fachdiskurs und Kriegspraxis in Deutschland 18991940, Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 2008, p. 398, . . The Luftwaffe forces consisted of 1,180 fighters, 290 Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers, 1,100 conventional bombers (mainly Heinkel He 111s and Dornier Do 17s), and an assortment of 550 transport and 350 reconnaissance aircraft. The recently-created Slovak Republic joined the attack, and Field Army Bernolk Not only did the government escape, but also the national gold supply was evacuated via Romania and brought to the West, notably London and Ottawa. Border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia began in 1918 between the Second Polish Republic and First Czechoslovak Republic, both freshly created states.The conflicts centered on the disputed areas of Cieszyn Silesia, Orava Territory and Spi.After World War II they broadened to include areas around the cities of Kodzko and Racibrz, which until 1945 had belonged to Germany. Polish to German forces in the September Campaign: 1,000,000 soldiers, 4,300 guns, 880 tanks, 435 aircraft (Poland) to 1,800,000 soldiers, 10,000 guns, 2,800 tanks, 3,000 aircraft (Germany). [97] In the last week of September, Hitler made a speech in Danzig and said: Meantime, Russia felt moved, on its part, to march in for the protection of the interests of the White Russian and Ukrainian people in Poland. The German troops left the area, and the Red Army troops entered Lww on 22 September. [63] Despite the fact that some of the airplanes had been shipped to Poland (the first transport of purchased aircraft on the ship "Lassel" sailed from Liverpool on 28 August[64]), none of them would take part in combat. Additionally, 160,000 reservists were called up, with 115,000 entering service until September 20, 1939. On 26 August, Hitler tried to dissuade the British and the French from interfering in the upcoming conflict, even pledging that the Wehrmacht forces would be made available to Britain's empire in the future. Slovak military forces advanced alongside the Germans in northern Slovakia. He made one film about German crimes against civilians during the invasion. Hyperleap helps uncover and suggest relationships using custom. 2951. [81] By 3 September, when von Kluge in the north had reached the Vistula River, then some 10km (6.2mi) from the German border, and Georg von Kchler was approaching the Narew River, Walther von Reichenau's armour was already beyond the Warta river. Meanwhile, Polish forces tried to move towards the Romanian Bridgehead area, still actively resisting the German invasion. [95] Before the Soviet attack from the east, the Polish military's plan had called for long-term defence against Germany in south-eastern Poland and to await relief from an attack by the Western Allies on Germany's western border. Despite their quick retreat, nearly a third of the Uhlans were killed or wounded.[127]. [73], The British and the French estimated that Poland would be able to defend itself for two to three months, and Poland estimated it could do so for at least six months. Gnther von Kluge led 20 divisions that entered the Polish Corridor and met a second force heading to Warsaw from East Prussia. [32] Polish leaders also distrusted Hitler. Sir N. Henderson to Viscount Halifax (received 9:30 a.m. 31 August), "1::Pomoc wojenna Imperium Brytyjskiego dla Polski w okresie II Wojny wiatowej", "Fall Weiss The German Invasion of Poland", "Poles Holding Line 30 Miles From Warsaw", ledztwo w sprawie zabjstwa w dniu 22 wrzenia 1939 r. w okolicach miejscowoci Sopokinie generaa brygady Wojska Polskiego Jzefa Olszyny-Wilczyskiego i jego adiutanta kapitana Mieczysawa Strzemskiego przez onierzy b. Zwizku Radzieckiego. The Slovak invasion of Poland (1939) occurred during Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland.The recently created Slovak Republic joined the attack and the Slovak field army (Field Army Bernolk) contributed over 50,000 soldiers in three divisions.The Slovakians met only weak resistance and suffered minimal losses. Many of the military exiles who escaped Poland joined the Polish Armed Forces in the West, an armed force loyal to the Polish government-in-exile. The German incorporation of Bohemia and Moravia and creation of the German puppet state of Slovakia meant that Poland's southern flank was also exposed.[70]. Soldiers of the Slovakian Army being decorated by Slovak Minister of Defence, Ferdinand atlo after the Invasion of Poland. [77] The propaganda also had some negative consequences for the Polish troops themselves, whose communications, disrupted by German mobile units operating in the rear and civilians blocking roads, were further thrown into chaos by bizarre reports from Polish radio stations and newspapers, which often reported imaginary victories and other military operations. [71] They intended to exploit their long border fully with the great enveloping manoeuver of Fall Weiss. By destroying communications, the Luftwaffe increased the pace of the advance which overran Polish airstrips and early warning sites, causing logistical problems for the Poles. Instead, it ordered all units to evacuate Poland and to reorganize in France. On the same day, Marshal of Poland Edward Rydz-migy announced the mobilization of Polish troops. [29][30] The Polish annexation of Slovak territory (several villages in the regions of adca, Orava and Spi) later served as the justification for the Slovak state to join the German invasion. In case of a failure to defend most of the territory, the army was to retreat to the south-east of the country, where the rough terrain, the Stryj and Dniestr rivers, valleys, hills and swamps would provide natural lines of defence against the German advance, and the Romanian Bridgehead could be created. The Slovak invasion of Poland occurred during Germany's invasion of Poland in September 1939. These places were considered safe, because of the pre-war alliance between Great-Britain, France and Poland. The Slovak invasion of Polandoccurred during Nazi Germany's invasion of Polandin September 1939. The plan of operations took into account the numerical and material superiority of the enemy and, also assumed the defensive character of Polish operations. History of Second World War, Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich at War, p. 102, Bytwerk, Randall. The attack started on September 1, 1939, at 5:00 a.m. At the start, Poland had a problem with the idea of treating Slovaks as their enemies, they even dropped leaflets requesting them to halt the invasion. Thus, any strategic exploitation of the armoured idea was still-born. [132][133][134] As for duration, the September Campaign lasted about a week and a half less than the Battle of France in 1940 even though the Anglo-French forces were much closer to parity with the Germans in numerical strength and equipment and were supported by the Maginot line. The negotiations convinced Hitler that there was little chance the Western Allies would declare war on Germany, and even if they did, because of the lack of "territorial guarantees" to Poland, they would be willing to negotiate a compromise favourable to Germany after its conquest of Poland. On 30 January 1933, the National Socialist German Workers' Party, under its leader Adolf Hitler, came to power in Germany. However, he was pressured into revoking the order by the French, who apparently still hoped for a diplomatic settlement, failing to realize that the Germans were fully mobilized and concentrated at the Polish border. German forces invaded Poland from the north, south, and west the morning after the Gleiwitz incident. We would prefer that the Russian armies stand in their present positions as friends and allies of Poland, rather than as invaders. German units were to invade Poland from three directions: All three assaults were to converge on Warsaw, and the main Polish army was to be encircled and destroyed west of the Vistula. The south-Slovak part of Czechoslovakia had contained a substantial Hungarian population (Slovakia had been part of the Kingdom of Hungary). Background. Two or three Slovak air squadrons (codenamed alia, Lily) were used for reconnaissance, bombing and close support for German fighters. It is a matter of expanding our living space in the east, of making our food supply secure, and solving the problem of the Baltic states. Now, 79 years later many people don't know that over 50,000 Slovak soldiers invaded Poland alongside Germany, resulting in the Polish regions of Spisz and Orawa, inhabited by 34,500, being incorporated into Slovakia. [Note 7] Furthermore, the Polish Army was preparing the Romanian Bridgehead, which would have prolonged Polish defence, but the plan was invalidated by the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September 1939.[135]. Contents 1 Prehistory 2 Antiquity 3 Medieval history 3.1 New migrations 3.2 Arrival of the Slavs 3.3 Avar Khaganate 3.4 Principality of Nitra 3.5 Great Moravia 3.6 High Middle Ages However, partly because of the earlier stoppage, Poland finally managed to mobilize only about 70% of its planned forces (only about 900,000 of 1,350,000 soldiers planned to mobilize in first order), and because of that many units were still forming or moving to their designated frontline positions. [102], The German invasion saw atrocities committed against Polish men, women and children. Poland participated with Germany in the partition of Czechoslovakia that followed the Munich Agreement, although they were not part of the agreement. The enclave of Westerplatte's tiny garrison capitulated on 7 September and the Oksywie garrison held until 19 September; the Hel Fortified Area was defended until 2 October. The campaign ended on 6 October with Germany and the Soviet Union dividing and annexing the whole of Poland under the terms of the German-Soviet. Polska 19391945. Hitler issued orders for the invasion to commence soon afterwards. The invasion lasted from September 1 to October 5, 1939. We cannot expect a repetition of Czechoslovakia. (S 6/02/Zk), "Polish experts lower nation's WWII death toll". The September Campaign was devised by General Franz Halder, the chief of the general staff, and directed by General Walther von Brauchitsch, the commander in chief of the upcoming campaign. Many Polish Air Force units ran low on supplies, and 98 of their number withdrew into neutral Romania. The recently created Slovak Republic joined the attack, and the Slovak Field Army Bernolk contributed over 50,000 soldiers in three divisions. The Slovak invasion of Poland occurred during Germany's invasion of Poland in September 1939. Mobile and available in significant quantity, artillery shattered as many units as any other branch of the Wehrmacht. It consisted of: The group was part of the German Army Group South; was subordinated to the 14th Army, led by Wilhelm List; and contributed to the 14th Army's total of five infantry divisions, three mountain divisions, two panzer divisions and one Luftwaffe division. Fear of enemy action against the flanks of the advance, fear which was to prove so disastrous to German prospects in the west in 1940 and in the Soviet Union in 1941, was present from the beginning of the war. Poland has outright announced that it wants to give . It would allow the Germans to advance in between two Polish Army groups in the line between Berlin and Warsaw-Lodz, and Armia Prusy would then move in and repulse the German spearhead, trapping it. None of the parties to the conflictGermany, the Western Allies or the Soviet Unionexpected that the German invasion of Poland would lead to a war that would surpass World War I in its scale and cost. [46] Most notably, the Germans had seven Panzer divisions, with 2,009 tanks between them, using a new operational doctrine. Quarterly Journal of Speech 91, no.1 (February 2005): 3762, sfn error: no target: CITEREFButler2001 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFRossino2003 (. The most remarkable event of this kind occurred at Brest-Litovsk on 22 September. "[23], The population of the Free City of Danzig was strongly in favour of annexation by Germany, as were many of the ethnic German inhabitants of the Polish territory that separated the German exclave of East Prussia from the rest of the Reich. German forces invaded Poland from the north, south, and west the morning after the Gleiwitz incident. The Soviet Union incorporated its newly acquired areas into its constituent Byelorussian and Ukrainian republics, and immediately started a campaign of Sovietization. Zahradnik "Korzenie Zaolzia. It coerced Czechoslovakia to surrender the region of esk Tn by issuing an ultimatum to that effect on 30 September 1938, which was accepted by Czechoslovakia on 1 October. "The Argument for Genocide in Nazi Propaganda." [87][88] The Soviet forces were holding fast along their designated invasion points pending finalization of the five-month-long undeclared war with Japan in the Far East, successful end of the conflict for the Soviet Union, which occurred in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol. The Modlin Fortress north of Warsaw capitulated on 29 September, after an intense 16-day battle. Thus, what was not seen by most politicians and generals in 1939 is clear from the historical perspective: The Polish September Campaign marked the beginning of a pan-European war, which combined with the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 and the Pacific War in 1941 to form the global conflict known as World War II. All those aircraft were of indigenous Polish design, with the bombers being more modern than the fighters, according to the Ludomi Rayski air force expansion plan, which relied on a strong bomber force. He photographed the beginning of the war by using one roll of colour film (Kodachrome) and much black-and-white film. The recently-created Slovak Republic joined the attack, and Field Army Bernolk contributed over 50,000 soldiers in three divisions. Taylor, Octopus, 1974, p. 35, Adam Kurowski 'Lotnictwo Polskie 1939' 129. Two days later, his left wing was well to the rear of d and his right wing at the town of Kielce. [44] On 31 August, Hitler ordered hostilities against Poland to start at 4:45 the next morning. On March 14, 1939, the Slovak State was created as a client state of Germany within the area of Slovakia. [21] Earlier, Hitler's foreign policy worked to weaken ties between Poland and France and attempted to manoeuvre Poland into the Anti-Comintern Pact, forming a cooperative front against the Soviet Union. The rest were kept in a Slovak prison camp in Le. [62] The Polish fighters were older than their German counterparts; the PZL P.11 fighterproduced in the early 1930shad a top speed of only 365km/h (227mph), far less than German bombers. The Polish Air Force had roughly 185 PZL P.11 and some 95 PZL P.7 fighters, 175 PZL.23 Kara Bs, 35 Kara as light bombers. [96] Despite a series of intensifying German attacks, Warsaw, defended by quickly-reorganized retreating units, civilian volunteers and militias, held out until 28 September. Poland had also a few relatively modern imported designs, such as 50 Renault R35 tanks and 38 Vickers E tanks. [84], The largest battle during this campaign, the Battle of Bzura, took place near the Bzura River, west of Warsaw, and lasted from 9 to 19 September. Talks over Danzig and the Corridor broke down and months passed without diplomatic interaction between Germany and Poland. Light divisions on Reichenau's right were on the Vistula between Warsaw and the town of Sandomierz by 9 September, and List, in the south, was on the San River north and south of the town of Przemyl. The recently-created Slovak Republic joined the attack, and Field Army Bernolk contributed over 50,000 soldiers in three divisions. Italian reporter Indro Montanelli promptly published an article in the Corriere della Sera, on the brave and heroic Polish cavalry men, who charged German tanks with sabres and lances. VI, 981. The Polish military had fewer armored forces than the Germans, and these units, dispersed within the infantry, were unable to effectively engage the Germans. On the morning of 26 August, this group was repelled by Polish troops. Slovak military forces advanced alongside the Germans in northern Slovakia. During secret discussions with the Germans on July 2021, 1939, the Slovak government agreed to participate in Germany's planned attack on Poland and to allow Germany to use Slovak territory as the staging area for German troops. Wojciech Materski and Tomasz Szarota (eds.). The Slovak invasion of Poland occurred during Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland in September 1939. The Slovak invasion of Poland occurred during Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland in September 1939. [108] Thus the entirety of occupied Poland was divided into four military districts (West Prussia, Posen, Lodz, and Krakau). : Slovak invasion of Poland and August Horislav kultty [77], As the prospect of conflict increased, the British government pressed Marshal Edward migy-Rydz to evacuate the most modern elements of the Polish Navy from the Baltic Sea. The Bernolk army group was led by Slovak Defence Minister Ferdinand atlo and had its initial headquarters in Spisk Nov Ves, though after September 8 this was moved to Solivar near Preov. French and participating Allies to German forces in the Battle of France: 2,862,000 soldiers, 13,974 guns, 3,384 tanks, 3,099 aircraft 2 (Allies) to 3,350,000 soldiers, 7,378 guns, 2,445 tanks, 5,446 aircraft (Germany). His photographs and film Siege are stored in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. On March 14, 1939, the Slovak State was established as a client state of Germany, which initiated the breakup of Czechoslovakia. [94] Those movements were quickly disciplined by the NKVD. While exact estimates vary, Poland cost the Germans about 45,000 casualties and 11,000 damaged or destroyed military vehicles, including 993 tanks and armored cars, 565 to 697 airplanes and 370 artillery pieces. As a result, Russia took up the same positions as an enemy of Poland that it might have taken as a very dubious and suspected friend. It called for the start of hostilities before a declaration of war, and pursued a doctrine of mass encirclement and destruction of enemy forces. In the aftermath of the invasion, a collective of underground resistance organizations formed the Polish Underground State within the territory of the former Polish state. See more Czechoslovak Air Force The Czechoslovak Air Force (eskoslovensk letectvo) or the Czechoslovak Army Air Force (eskoslovensk vojensk letectvo) was the air force branch of the Czechoslovak Army formed in October 1918. [78], Although the Polish military had prepared for conflict, the civilian population remained largely unprepared. [108] On 28 September, another secret GermanSoviet protocol modified the arrangements of August: all of Lithuania was shifted to the Soviet sphere of influence; in exchange, the dividing line in Poland was moved in Germany's favour, eastwards towards the Bug River. Invasion of Poland may also refer to: World War II German invasion of Poland, 1939 Slovak invasion of Poland, 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland, 1939 Historian Steven Zaloga in Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg (2004): If a single image dominates the popular perception of the Polish campaign of 1939, it is the scene of Polish cavalry bravely charging the Panzers with their lances. 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